Altered, Meiotic chromosome dynamics leads to Altered, Chromosome number

The weight of evidence for this KER is weak. The mechanistic aspects of chromosome dynamics are well understood [Bennabi et al., 2016; Touati and Wassmann, 2016]. It is broadly understood that correct chromosome alignment is required for to produce an egg with the correct number of chromosomes and that the probability of an aneuploid egg is increased when chromosomes fail to align correctly. However, chromosome misalignment does not always lead to subsequent errors in chromosome segregation. This may be due in part to the important role of the SAC in blocking chromosome segregation when chromosomes are not correctly aligned [Amon, 1999; Musacchio and Salmon, 2007; Polanski, 2013; Musacchio, 2015]. At this time, there is not complete mechanistic understanding of every step in this process.

There are insufficient empirical data examining the concordance between chromosome dynamics and generation of aneuploidy oocytes because very few studies have examined chromosome dynamics in these cells.

Two in vitro studies have investigated chromosome congression defects and aneuploidy in mouse oocytes. Using nocodazole and 2-methoxyestradiol these studies demonstrated that there is a temporal and dose-response related consistency among the events; i.e., downstream KEs are occurring at higher doses and later time points than upstream KEs [Shen et al., 2005; Eichenlaub-Ritter et al., 2007]. Specifically, exposure of mouse oocytes to increasing concentrations of 2-methoxyestradiol demonstrates: 1) abnormal spindle formation beginning at 3.75 uM (53% of cells), and increasing to 75% at 5 uM, and 100% by 7.5 uM; 2) hyperploidy occurring at 6%, 23% and 100% at 3.75, 5 and 7.5 uM, respectively; and 3) abnormal spindle forming as early as 9 hr, and aneuploidy arising by 16 hrs. Similarly, in Shen et al. (2005), mouse oocytes exposed to nocodazole showed abnormal chromosome alignment in 9%, 22% and 23% of oocytes, which is concordant with a 0%, 3% and 10% increase in hyperploid oocytes at 20nM, 30nM and 40nM, respectively. Moreover, alignment errors were measured at 13 hr, whereas aneuploidy was found at 16 hr. Both of these studies demonstrate that errors in chromosome alignment occur earlier and at higher rates than aneuploidy in eggs. A causal correlation between chromosome misalignment and generation of aneuploid oocytes has been reported after exposure to bisphenol A [Hunt et al., 2003].

Additional evidence is coming from some studies investigating the effects of protein deficiencies in mouse oocytes, and reporting a relationship between altered chromosome dynamics and aneuploidy [Mc Guinness et al., 2009; Ou et al., 2010; Baumann et al., 2017]. Targeting deletion of Bub1 in mouse oocytes leads to defective chromosome segregation and aneuploidy is monitored for the whole chromosome set by the multicoloured SKY FISH approach [Mc Guinness et al. 2009]. After depletion in mouse oocytes of the MTOC component p38a chromosome congression defects are 8 times more frequent than in controls, and under these conditions the incidence of aneuploid oocytes is about 8-fold higher [Ou et al., 2010].  In a study carried out using a oocyte conditional pericentrin knockout mouse model and live cell imaging, it has been demonstrated that unattached kinetochores, merotelic attachments, misaligned and uncongressed chromosomes are significantly increased and this is causing an increase of ploidy defects [Baumann et al., 2017]. Although based on genetic models, these data provide a direct evidence of the mechanisms involved in this KER.

Although there are no inconsistent results reported, it is important to note that very few studies have measured chromosome dynamics and induction of aneuploidy in oocytes.

Data are available on the dose-response relationship for aneuploidy induction in oocytes (KEdownstream) treated with colchicine [Mailhes et al., 1988; Mailhes et al., 1990], vinblastine [Russo and Pacchierotti, 1988; Mailhes et al., 1993] or 2-methoxyestradiol [Eichenlaub-Ritter et al., 2007], which are consistent with the threshold relationship established in mitotic cells [Elhajouji et al., 2011]. Unfortunately, dose-effect relationships have not been established for chromosome dynamics alterations (KEupstream) at the first meiotic division. Thus, it is not possible to establish the shape of the response-response relationship between chromosome dynamics alteratiions (KEupstream) and altered chromosome nubmer in oocytes (KEdownstream).

As noted before, chromosome dynamics on the metaphase plate of oocytes may last a few hours before anaphase onset. The first meiotic anaphase lasts about 25 min equally distributed between anaphase-1, characterized by increased spindle length and movement of chromosomes towards the poles, and anaphase-2 at the end of which chromosomes reach the poles and aggregate into condensed clusters [Wei et al., 2018]. Thus, it is expected that alterations of chromosome number in the oocyte (KEdownstream) would lag alterations of meiotic chromosome dynamics (KEupstream) by hours, although no studies have been carried out until now to specifically address the time-scale of events linking chromosome dynamics alteratiions (KEupstream) and altered chromosome nubmer in oocytes (KEdownstream).

In mitotic and meiotic cells, anaphase onset and ensuing chromosome distribution is under checkpoint control that may delay anaphase onset until chromosomes are correctly aligned on the spindle equator, as signaled by specific molecular events [Nagaoka et al., 2012; Musacchio et al., 2015; Webster and Schuh, 2017]. Although the SAC in mammalian oocytes is deemed to be more tolerant to the presence of unaligned chromosomes, its role in preventing aneuploidy is proven in genetically modified or silenced systems [Mailhes and Marchetti 2010]. These checkpoint and signaling mechanisms therefore are expected to act as feedback loops, which may influence the time-scale of the KER between KEupstream (altered chromosome dynamics) and altered chromosome number in the oocyte (KEdownstream).