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Event: 1392
Key Event Title
Oxidative Stress
Short name
Biological Context
| Level of Biological Organization |
|---|
| Molecular |
Cell term
Organ term
Key Event Components
Key Event Overview
AOPs Including This Key Event
| AOP Name | Role of event in AOP | Point of Contact | Author Status | OECD Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyp2E1 Activation Leading to Liver Cancer | KeyEvent | Agnes Aggy (send email) | Open for citation & comment | WPHA/WNT Endorsed |
| Oxidative stress and Developmental impairment in learning and memory | KeyEvent | Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) | Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite | EAGMST Approved |
| Oxidative stress in chronic kidney disease | KeyEvent | Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) | Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite | |
| TLR9 activation leading to Multi Organ Failure and ARDS | KeyEvent | Cataia Ives (send email) | Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite | |
| Oxidative stress Leading to Decreased Lung Function | MolecularInitiatingEvent | Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) | Open for comment. Do not cite | |
| Ox stress-mediated CFTR/ASL/CBF/MCC impairment | MolecularInitiatingEvent | Arthur Author (send email) | Open for comment. Do not cite | |
| ox stress-mediated FOXJ1/cilia/CBF/MCC impairment | MolecularInitiatingEvent | Agnes Aggy (send email) | Open for comment. Do not cite | |
| tau-AOP | KeyEvent | Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) | Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite | |
| Inhibition of Mt-ETC complexes leading to kidney toxicity | KeyEvent | Agnes Aggy (send email) | Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite |
Stressors
Taxonomic Applicability
Life Stages
| Life stage | Evidence |
|---|---|
| All life stages | High |
Sex Applicability
| Term | Evidence |
|---|---|
| Mixed | High |
Key Event Description
Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defenses. High levels of oxidizing free radicals can be very damaging to cells and molecules within the cell. As a result, the cell has important defense mechanisms to protect itself from ROS. For example, Nrf2 is a transcription factor and master regulator of the oxidative stress response. During periods of oxidative stress, Nrf2-dependent changes in gene expression are important in regaining cellular homeostasis (Nguyen, et al. 2009) and can be used as indicators of the presence of oxidative stress in the cell.
In addition to the directly damaging actions of ROS, cellular oxidative stress also changes cellular activities on a molecular level. Redox sensitive proteins have altered physiology in the presence and absence of ROS, which is caused by the oxidation of sulfhydryls to disulfides (2SH àSS) on neighboring amino acids (Antelmann and Helmann 2011). Importantly Keap1, the negative regulator of Nrf2, is regulated in this manner (Itoh, et al. 2010).
Protection against oxidative stress is relevant for all tissues and organs, although some tissues may be more susceptible. For example, the brain possesses several key physiological features, such as high O2 utilization, high polyunsaturated fatty acids content, presence of autooxidable neurotransmitters, and low antioxidant defenses as compared to other organs, that make it highly susceptible to oxidative stress (Halliwell, 2006; Emerit and al., 2004; Frauenberger et al., 2016).
How It Is Measured or Detected
Oxidative Stress. Direct measurement of ROS is difficult because ROS are unstable. The presence of ROS can be assayed indirectly by measurement of cellular antioxidants, or by ROS-dependent cellular damage:
- Detection of ROS by chemiluminescence (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165993606001683)
- Detection of ROS by chemiluminescence is also described in OECD TG 495 to assess phototoxic potential.
- Glutathione (GSH) depletion. GSH can be measured by assaying the ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione (GSH:GSSG) using a commercially available kit (e.g., http://www.abcam.com/gshgssg-ratio-detection-assay-kit-fluorometric-green-ab138881.html).
- TBARS. Oxidative damage to lipids can be measured by assaying for lipid peroxidation using TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) using a commercially available kit.
- 8-oxo-dG. Oxidative damage to nucleic acids can be assayed by measuring 8-oxo-dG adducts (for which there are a number of ELISA based commercially available kits),or HPLC, described in Chepelev et al. (Chepelev, et al. 2015).
Molecular Biology: Nrf2. Nrf2’s transcriptional activity is controlled post-translationally by oxidation of Keap1. Assay for Nrf2 activity include: - Immunohistochemistry for increases in Nrf2 protein levels and translocation into the nucleus;
- Western blot for increased Nrf2 protein levels;
- Western blot of cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions to observe translocation of Nrf2 protein from the cytoplasm to the nucleus;
- qPCR of Nrf2 target genes (e.g., Nqo1, Hmox-1, Gcl, Gst, Prx, TrxR, Srxn), or by commercially available pathway-based qPCR array (e.g., oxidative stress array from SABiosciences);
- Whole transcriptome profiling by microarray or RNA-seq followed by pathway analysis (in IPA, DAVID, metacore, etc.) for enrichment of the Nrf2 oxidative stress response pathway (e.g., Jackson et al. 2014);
- OECD TG422D describes an ARE-Nrf2 Luciferase test method;
- In general, there are a variety of commercially available colorimetric or fluorescent kits for detecting Nrf2 activation.
| Assay Type & Measured Content | Description | Dose Range Studied |
Assay Characteristics (Length / Ease of use/Accuracy) |
|
ROS Formation in the Mitochondria assay Measuring (Shaki et al., 2012) |
“The mitochondrial ROS measurement was performed flow cytometry using DCFH-DA. Briefly, isolated kidney mitochondria were incubated with UA (0, 50, 100 and 200 μM) in respiration buffer containing (0.32 mM sucrose, 10 mM Tris, 20 mM Mops, 50 μM EGTA, 0.5 mM MgCl2, 0.1 mM KH2PO4 and 5 mM sodium succinate) [32]. In the interval times of 5, 30 and 60 min following the UA addition, a sample was taken and DCFH-DA was added (final concentration, 10 μM) to mitochondria and was then incubated for 10 min. Uranyl acetate-induced ROS generation in isolated kidney mitochondria were determined through the flow cytometry (Partec, Deutschland) equipped with a 488-nm argon ion laser and supplied with the Flomax software and the signals were obtained using a 530-nm bandpass filter (FL-1 channel). Each determination is based on the mean fluorescence intensity of 15,000 counts.” (Shaki et al., 2012) | 0, 50, 100 and 200 μM of Uranyl Acetate |
Long/ Easy High accuracy |
|
Mitochondrial Antioxidant Content Assay Measuring GSH content (Shaki et al., 2012) |
“GSH content was determined using DTNB as the indicator and spectrophotometer method for the isolated mitochondria. The mitochondrial fractions (0.5 mg protein/ml) were incubated with various concentrations of uranyl acetate for 1 h at 30 °C and then 0.1 ml of mitochondrial fractions was added into 0.1 mol/l of phosphate buffers and 0.04% DTNB in a total volume of 3.0 ml (pH 7.4). The developed yellow color was read at 412 nm on a spectrophotometer (UV-1601 PC, Shimadzu, Japan). GSH content was expressed as μg/mg protein.” (Shaki et al., 2012) |
0, 50, 100, or 200 μM Uranyl Acetate |
|
|
H2O2 Production Assay Measuring H2O2 Production in isolated mitochondria (Heyno et al., 2008) |
“Effect of CdCl2 and antimycin A (AA) on H2O2 production in isolated mitochondria from potato. H2O2 production was measured as scopoletin oxidation. Mitochondria were incubated for 30 min in the measuring buffer (see the Materials and Methods) containing 0.5 mM succinate as an electron donor and 0.2 µM mesoxalonitrile 3‐chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) as an uncoupler, 10 U horseradish peroxidase and 5 µM scopoletin.” (Heyno et al., 2008) |
0, 10, 30 μM Cd2+ 2 μM antimycin A |
|
|
Flow Cytometry ROS & Cell Viability (Kruiderig et al., 1997) |
“For determination of ROS, samples taken at the indicated time points were directly transferred to FACScan tubes. Dih123 (10 mM, final concentration) was added and cells were incubated at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere (95% air/5% CO2) for 10 min. At t 5 9, propidium iodide (10 mM, final concentration) was added, and cells were analyzed by flow cytometry at 60 ml/min. Nonfluorescent Dih123 is cleaved by ROS to fluorescent R123 and detected by the FL1 detector as described above for Dc (Van de Water 1995)” |
Strong/easy medium |
|
|
DCFH-DA Assay Detection of hydrogen peroxide production (Yuan et al., 2016) |
Intracellular ROS production was measured using DCFH-DA as a probe. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes DCFH to DCF. The probe is hydrolyzed intracellularly to DCFH carboxylate anion. No direct reaction with H2O2 to form fluorescent production. |
0-400 µM |
Long/ Easy High accuracy |
|
H2-DCF-DA Assay Detection of superoxide production (Thiebault et al., 2007) |
This dye is a stable nonpolar compound which diffuses readily into the cells and yields H2-DCF. Intracellular OH or ONOO- react with H2-DCF when cells contain peroxides, to form the highly fluorescent compound DCF, which effluxes the cell. Fluorescence intensity of DCF is measured using a fluorescence spectrophotometer. | 0–600 µM |
Long/ Easy High accuracy |
| CM-H2DCFDA Assay | **Come back and explain the flow cytometry determination of oxidative stress from Pan et al. (2009)** |
Domain of Applicability
Oxidative stress is produced in, and can occur in, any species from bacteria through to humans.
Evidence for Perturbation by Stressor
Overview for Molecular Initiating Event
Platinum
Kruidering et al. (1997) examined the effect of platinum on pig kidneys and found that it was able to induce significant dose-dependant ROS formation within 20 minutes of treatment administration.
Aluminum
In a study of the effects of aluminum treatment on rat kidneys, Al Dera (2016) found that renal GSH, SOD, and GPx levels were significantly lower in the treated groups, while lipid peroxidation levels were significantly increased.
Cadmium
Belyaeva et al. (2012) investigated the effect of cadmium treatment on human kidney cells. They found that cadmium was the most toxic when the sample was treated with 500 μM for 3 hours (Belyaeva et al., 2012). As this study also looked at mercury, it is worth noting that mercury was more toxic than cadmium in both 30-minute and 3-hour exposures at low concentrations (10-100 μM) (Belyaeva et al., 2012).
Wang et al. (2009) conducted a study evaluating the effects of cadmium treatment on rats and found that the treated group showed a significant increase in lipid peroxidation. They also assessed the effects of lead in this study, and found that cadmium can achieve a very similar level of lipid peroxidation at a much lower concentration than lead can, implying that cadmium is a much more toxic metal to the kidney mitochondria than lead is (Wang et al., 2009). They also found that when lead and cadmium were applied together they had an additive effect in increasing lipid peroxidation content in the renal cortex of rats (Wang et al., 2009).
Jozefczak et al. (2015) treated Arabidopsis thaliana wildtype, cad2-1 mutant, and vtc1-1 mutant plants with cadmium to determine the effects of heavy metal exposure to plant mitochondria in the roots and leaves. They found that total GSH/GSG ratios were significantly increased after cadmium exposure in the leaves of all sample varieties and that GSH content was most significantly decreased for the wildtype plant roots (Jozefczak et al., 2015).
Andjelkovic et al. (2019) also found that renal lipid peroxidation was significantly increased in rats treated with 30 mg/kg of cadmium.
Mercury
Belyaeva et al. (2012) conducted a study which looked at the effects of mercury on human kidney cells, they found that mercury was the most toxic when the sample was treated with 100 μM for 30 minutes.
Buelna-Chontal et al. (2017) investigated the effects of mercury on rat kidneys and found that treated rats had higher lipid peroxidation content and reduced cytochrome c content in their kidneys.
Uranium
In Shaki et al.’s article (2012), they found rat kidney mitochondria treated with uranyl acetate caused increased formation of ROS, increased lipid peroxidation, and decreased GSH content when exposed to 100 μM or more for an hour.
Hao et al. (2014), found that human kidney proximal tubular cells (HK-2 cells) treated with uranyl nitrate for 24 hours with 500 μM showed a 3.5 times increase in ROS production compared to the control. They also found that GSH content was decreased by 50% of the control when the cells were treated with uranyl nitrate (Hao et al., 2014).
Arsenic
Bhadauria and Flora (2007) studied the effects of arsenic treatment on rat kidneys. They found that lipid peroxidation levels were increased by 1.5 times and the GSH/GSSG ratio was decreased significantly (Bhadauria and Flora, 2007).
Kharroubi et al. (2014) also investigated the effect of arsenic treatment on rat kidneys and found that lipid peroxidation was significantly increased, while GSH content was significantly decreased.
In their study of the effects of arsenic treatment on rat kidneys, Turk et al. (2019) found that lipid peroxidation was significantly increased while GSH and GPx renal content were decreased.
Silver
Miyayama et al. (2013) investigated the effects of silver treatment on human bronchial epithelial cells and found that intracellular ROS generation was increased significantly in a dose-dependant manner when treated with 0.01 to 1.0 μM of silver nitrate.
Manganese
Chtourou et al. (2012) investigated the effects of manganese treatment on rat kidneys. They found that manganese treatment caused significant increases in ROS production, lipid peroxidation, urinary H2O2 levels, and PCO production. They also found that intracellular GSH content was depleted in the treated group (Chtourou et al., 2012).
Nickel
Tyagi et al. (2011) conducted a study of the effects of nickel treatment on rat kidneys. They found that the treated rats showed a significant increase in kidney lipid peroxidation and a significant decrease in GSH content in the kidney tissue (Tyagi et al., 2011).
Zinc
Yeh et al. (2011) investigated the effects of zinc treatment on rat kidneys and found that treatment with 150 μM or more for 2 weeks or more caused a time- and dose-dependant increase in lipid peroxidation. They also found that renal GSH content was decreased in the rats treated with 150 μM or more for 8 weeks (Yeh et al., 2011).
It should be noted that Hao et al. (2014) found that rat kidneys exposed to lower concentrations of zinc (such as 100 μM) for short time periods (such as 1 day), showed a protective effect against toxicity induced by other heavy metals, including uranium. Soussi, Gargouri, and El Feki (2018) also found that pre-treatment with a low concentration of zinc (10 mg/kg treatment for 15 days) protected the renal cells of rats were from changes in varying oxidative stress markers, such as lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyl, and GPx levels.
nanoparticles
Huerta-García et al. (2014) conducted a study of the effects of titanium nanoparticles on human and rat brain cells. They found that both the human and rat cells showed time-dependant increases in ROS when treated with titanium nanoparticles for 2 to 6 hours (Huerta-García et al., 2014). They also found elevated lipid peroxidation that was induced by the titanium nanoparticle treatment of human and rat cell lines in a time-dependant manner (Huerta-García et al., 2014).
Liu et al. (2010) also investigated the effects of titanium nanoparticles, however they conducted their trials on rat kidney cells. They found that ROS production was significantly increased in a dose dependant manner when treated with 10 to 100 μg/mL of titanium nanoparticles (Liu et al., 2010).
Pan et al. (2009) treated human cervix carcinoma cells with gold nanoparticles (Au1.4MS) and found that intracellular ROS content in the treated cells increased in a time-dependant manner when treated with 100 μM for 6 to 48 hours. They also compared the treatment with Au1.4MS gold nanoparticles to treatment with Au15MS treatment, which are another size of gold nanoparticle (Pan et al., 2009). The Au15MS nanoparticles were much less toxic than the Au1.4MS gold nanoparticles, even when the Au15MS nanoparticles were applied at a concentration of 1000 μM (Pan et al., 2009). When investigating further markers of oxidative stress, Pan et al. (2009) found that GSH content was greatly decreased in cells treated with gold nanoparticles.
Ferreira et al. (2015) also studied the effects of gold nanoparticles. They exposed rat kidneys to GNPs-10 (10 nm particles) and GNPs-30 (30 nm particles), and found that lipid peroxidation and protein carbonyl content in the rat kidneys treated with GNPs-30 and GNPs-10, respectively, were significantly elevated.
References
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