This Event is licensed under the Creative Commons BY-SA license. This license allows reusers to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon the material in any medium or format, so long as attribution is given to the creator. The license allows for commercial use. If you remix, adapt, or build upon the material, you must license the modified material under identical terms.

Event: 1392

Key Event Title

A descriptive phrase which defines a discrete biological change that can be measured. More help

Oxidative Stress

Short name
The KE short name should be a reasonable abbreviation of the KE title and is used in labelling this object throughout the AOP-Wiki. More help
Oxidative Stress
Explore in a Third Party Tool

Biological Context

Structured terms, selected from a drop-down menu, are used to identify the level of biological organization for each KE. More help
Level of Biological Organization
Molecular

Cell term

The location/biological environment in which the event takes place.The biological context describes the location/biological environment in which the event takes place.  For molecular/cellular events this would include the cellular context (if known), organ context, and species/life stage/sex for which the event is relevant. For tissue/organ events cellular context is not applicable.  For individual/population events, the organ context is not applicable.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help

Organ term

The location/biological environment in which the event takes place.The biological context describes the location/biological environment in which the event takes place.  For molecular/cellular events this would include the cellular context (if known), organ context, and species/life stage/sex for which the event is relevant. For tissue/organ events cellular context is not applicable.  For individual/population events, the organ context is not applicable.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help

Key Event Components

The KE, as defined by a set structured ontology terms consisting of a biological process, object, and action with each term originating from one of 14 biological ontologies (Ives, et al., 2017; https://aopwiki.org/info_pages/2/info_linked_pages/7#List). Biological process describes dynamics of the underlying biological system (e.g., receptor signalling).Biological process describes dynamics of the underlying biological system (e.g., receptor signaling).  The biological object is the subject of the perturbation (e.g., a specific biological receptor that is activated or inhibited). Action represents the direction of perturbation of this system (generally increased or decreased; e.g., ‘decreased’ in the case of a receptor that is inhibited to indicate a decrease in the signaling by that receptor).  Note that when editing Event Components, clicking an existing Event Component from the Suggestions menu will autopopulate these fields, along with their source ID and description.  To clear any fields before submitting the event component, use the 'Clear process,' 'Clear object,' or 'Clear action' buttons.  If a desired term does not exist, a new term request may be made via Term Requests.  Event components may not be edited; to edit an event component, remove the existing event component and create a new one using the terms that you wish to add.  Further information on Event Components and Biological Context may be viewed on the attached pdf. More help
Process Object Action
oxidative stress increased

Key Event Overview

AOPs Including This Key Event

All of the AOPs that are linked to this KE will automatically be listed in this subsection. This table can be particularly useful for derivation of AOP networks including the KE.Clicking on the name of the AOP will bring you to the individual page for that AOP. More help
AOP Name Role of event in AOP Point of Contact Author Status OECD Status
Cyp2E1 Activation Leading to Liver Cancer KeyEvent Agnes Aggy (send email) Open for citation & comment WPHA/WNT Endorsed
Oxidative stress and Developmental impairment in learning and memory KeyEvent Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) Open for citation & comment WPHA/WNT Endorsed
Oxidative stress in chronic kidney disease KeyEvent Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
TLR9 activation leading to Multi Organ Failure and ARDS KeyEvent Cataia Ives (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
Oxidative stress Leading to Decreased Lung Function MolecularInitiatingEvent Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) Open for comment. Do not cite
Ox stress-mediated CFTR/ASL/CBF/MCC impairment MolecularInitiatingEvent Arthur Author (send email) Open for comment. Do not cite
ox stress-mediated FOXJ1/cilia/CBF/MCC impairment MolecularInitiatingEvent Agnes Aggy (send email) Open for comment. Do not cite
tau-AOP KeyEvent Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
PM-induced respiratory toxicity KeyEvent Cataia Ives (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
Calcium overload driven development of parkinsonian motor deficits KeyEvent Cataia Ives (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
Deposition of energy leads to vascular remodeling KeyEvent Cataia Ives (send email) Open for citation & comment
Deposition of energy leading to cataracts KeyEvent Arthur Author (send email) Open for citation & comment
Mitochondrial complexes inhibition leading to LV function decrease KeyEvent Agnes Aggy (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite Under Development
AOPs of SiNPs: ROS-mediated oxidative stress increased respiratory toxicity. KeyEvent Evgeniia Kazymova (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
Deposition of energy leading to bone loss KeyEvent Cataia Ives (send email) Open for citation & comment
Deposition of Energy Leading to Learning and Memory Impairment KeyEvent Brendan Ferreri-Hanberry (send email) Open for citation & comment
ROS formation leads to cancer via inflammation pathway KeyEvent Evgeniia Kazymova (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
Essential element imbalance leads to reproductive failure via oxidative stress KeyEvent Agnes Aggy (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite
CYP450 upregulation leads to Chronic kidney disease KeyEvent Arthur Author (send email) Under development: Not open for comment. Do not cite

Taxonomic Applicability

Latin or common names of a species or broader taxonomic grouping (e.g., class, order, family) that help to define the biological applicability domain of the KE.In many cases, individual species identified in these structured fields will be those for which the strongest evidence used in constructing the AOP was available in relation to this KE. More help
Term Scientific Term Evidence Link
rodents rodents High NCBI
Homo sapiens Homo sapiens High NCBI

Life Stages

An indication of the the relevant life stage(s) for this KE. More help
Life stage Evidence
All life stages High

Sex Applicability

An indication of the the relevant sex for this KE. More help
Term Evidence
Mixed High

Key Event Description

A description of the biological state being observed or measured, the biological compartment in which it is measured, and its general role in the biology should be provided. More help

Oxidative stress is defined as an imbalance in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant defenses. High levels of oxidizing free radicals can be very damaging to cells and molecules within the cell (Pizzino et al., 2017; Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020; Jena et al., 2023).  As a result, the cell has important defense mechanisms to protect itself from ROS. For example, Nrf2 is a transcription factor and master regulator of the oxidative stress response. During periods of oxidative stress, Nrf2-dependent changes in gene expression are important in regaining cellular homeostasis (Nguyen, et al. 2009) and can be used as indicators of the presence of oxidative stress in the cell.

In addition to the directly damaging actions of ROS, cellular oxidative stress also changes cellular activities on a molecular level. Redox sensitive proteins have altered physiology in the presence and absence of ROS, which is caused by the oxidation of sulfhydryls to disulfides (2SH àSS) on neighboring amino acids (Antelmann and Helmann 2011). Importantly Keap1, the negative regulator of Nrf2, is regulated in this manner (Itoh, et al. 2010).

ROS also undermine the mitochondrial defense system from oxidative damage. The antioxidant systems consist of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase, as well as antioxidants such as α-tocopherol and ubiquinol, or antioxidant vitamins and minerals including vitamin E, C, carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, selenium, and zinc (Fletcher, 2010). The enzymes, vitamins and minerals catalyze the conversion of ROS to non-toxic molecules such as water and O2. However, these antioxidant systems are not perfect and endogenous metabolic processes and/or exogenous oxidative influences can trigger cumulative oxidative injuries to the mitochondria, causing a decline in their functionality and efficiency, which further promotes cellular oxidative stress (Balasubramanian, 2000; Ganea & Harding, 2006; Guo et al., 2013; Karimi et al., 2017).

However, an emerging viewpoint suggests that ROS-induced modifications may not be as detrimental as previously thought, but rather contribute to signaling processes (Foyer et al., 2017). 

Protection against oxidative stress is relevant for all tissues and organs, although some tissues may be more susceptible. For example, the brain possesses several key physiological features, such as high O2 utilization, high polyunsaturated fatty acids content, presence of autooxidable neurotransmitters, and low antioxidant defenses as compared to other organs, that make it highly susceptible to oxidative stress (Halliwell, 2006; Emerit and al., 2004; Frauenberger et al., 2016).

Sources of ROS Production

Direct Sources: Direct sources involve the deposition of energy onto water molecules, breaking them into active radical species. When ionizing radiation hits water, it breaks it into hydrogen (H*) and hydroxyl (OH*) radicals by destroying its bonds. The hydrogen will create hydroxyperoxyl free radicals (HO2*) if oxygen is available, which can then react with another of itself to form hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and more O2 (Elgazzar and Kazem, 2015). Antioxidant mechanisms are also affected by radiation, with catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD) levels rising as a result of exposure (Seen et al. 2018; Ahmad et al. 2021).

Indirect Sources: An indirect source of ROS is the mitochondria, which is one of the primary producers in eukaryotic cells (Powers et al., 2008).  As much as 2% of the electrons that should be going through the electron transport chain in the mitochondria escape, allowing them an opportunity to interact with surrounding structures. Electron-oxygen reactions result in free radical production, including the formation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) (Zhao et al., 2019). The electron transport chain, which also creates ROS, is activated by free adenosine diphosphate (ADP), O2, and inorganic phosphate (Pi) (Hargreaves et al. 2020; Raimondi et al. 2020; Vargas-Mendoza et al. 2021). The first and third complexes of the transport chain are the most relevant to mammalian ROS production (Raimondi et al., 2020). The mitochondria have its own set of DNA and it is a prime target of oxidative damage (Guo et al., 2013). ROS are also produced through nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX) stimulation, an event commenced by angiotensin II, a product/effector of the renin-angiotensin system (Nguyen Dinh Cat et al. 2013; Forrester et al. 2018). Other ROS producers include xanthine oxidase, immune cells (macrophage, neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), monoamine oxidase (MAO), and carbon-based nanomaterials (Powers et al. 2008; Jacobsen et al. 2008; Vargas-Mendoza et al. 2021).

How It Is Measured or Detected

A description of the type(s) of measurements that can be employed to evaluate the KE and the relative level of scientific confidence in those measurements.These can range from citation of specific validated test guidelines, citation of specific methods published in the peer reviewed literature, or outlines of a general protocol or approach (e.g., a protein may be measured by ELISA). Do not provide detailed protocols. More help

Oxidative Stress. Direct measurement of ROS is difficult because ROS are unstable. The presence of ROS can be assayed indirectly by measurement of cellular antioxidants, or by ROS-dependent cellular damage. Listed below are common methods for detecting the KE, however there may be other comparable methods that are not listed

  • Detection of ROS by chemiluminescence (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0165993606001683)
  • Detection of ROS by chemiluminescence is also described in OECD TG 495 to assess phototoxic potential.
  • Glutathione (GSH) depletion. GSH can be measured by assaying the ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione (GSH:GSSG) using a commercially available kit (e.g., http://www.abcam.com/gshgssg-ratio-detection-assay-kit-fluorometric-green-ab138881.html). 
  • TBARS. Oxidative damage to lipids can be measured by assaying for lipid peroxidation using TBARS (thiobarbituric acid reactive substances) using a commercially available kit. 
  • 8-oxo-dG. Oxidative damage to nucleic acids can be assayed by measuring 8-oxo-dG adducts (for which there are a number of ELISA based commercially available kits),or  HPLC, described in Chepelev et al. (Chepelev, et al. 2015).

Molecular Biology: Nrf2. Nrf2’s transcriptional activity is controlled post-translationally by oxidation of Keap1. Assay for Nrf2 activity include:

  • Immunohistochemistry for increases in Nrf2 protein levels and translocation into the nucleus
  • Western blot for increased Nrf2 protein levels
  • Western blot of cytoplasmic and nuclear fractions to observe translocation of Nrf2 protein from the cytoplasm to the nucleus
  • qPCR of Nrf2 target genes (e.g., Nqo1, Hmox-1, Gcl, Gst, Prx, TrxR, Srxn), or by commercially available pathway-based qPCR array (e.g., oxidative stress array from SABiosciences)
  • Whole transcriptome profiling by microarray or RNA-seq followed by pathway analysis (in IPA, DAVID, metacore, etc.) for enrichment of the Nrf2 oxidative stress response pathway (e.g., Jackson et al. 2014)
  • OECD TG422D describes an ARE-Nrf2 Luciferase test method
  • In general, there are a variety of commercially available colorimetric or fluorescent kits for detecting Nrf2 activation
Assay Type & Measured Content Description Dose Range Studied

Assay Characteristics (Length / Ease of use/Accuracy)

ROS Formation in the Mitochondria assay (Shaki et al., 2012)

“The mitochondrial ROS measurement was performed flow cytometry using DCFH-DA. Briefly, isolated kidney mitochondria were incubated with UA (0, 50, 100 and 200 μM) in respiration buffer containing (0.32 mM sucrose, 10 mM Tris, 20 mM Mops, 50 μM EGTA, 0.5 mM MgCl2, 0.1 mM KH2PO4 and 5 mM sodium succinate) [32]. In the interval times of 5, 30 and 60 min following the UA addition, a sample was taken and DCFH-DA was added (final concentration, 10 μM) to mitochondria and was then incubated for 10 min. Uranyl acetate-induced ROS generation in isolated kidney mitochondria were determined through the flow cytometry (Partec, Deutschland) equipped with a 488-nm argon ion laser and supplied with the Flomax software and the signals were obtained using a 530-nm bandpass filter (FL-1 channel). Each determination is based on the mean fluorescence intensity of 15,000 counts.” 0, 50, 100 and 200 μM of Uranyl Acetate

Long/ Easy

High accuracy

Mitochondrial Antioxidant Content Assay Measuring GSH content

(Shaki et al., 2012)
“GSH content was determined using DTNB as the indicator and spectrophotometer method for the isolated mitochondria. The mitochondrial fractions (0.5 mg protein/ml) were incubated with various concentrations of uranyl acetate for 1 h at 30 °C and then 0.1 ml of mitochondrial fractions was added into 0.1 mol/l of phosphate buffers and 0.04% DTNB in a total volume of 3.0 ml (pH 7.4). The developed yellow color was read at 412 nm on a spectrophotometer (UV-1601 PC, Shimadzu, Japan). GSH content was expressed as μg/mg protein.”

0, 50, 100, or 200 μM Uranyl Acetate

 

H2O2 Production Assay Measuring H2O2 Production in isolated mitochondria

(Heyno et al., 2008)
“Effect of CdCl2 and antimycin A (AA) on H2O2 production in isolated mitochondria from potato. H2O2 production was measured as scopoletin oxidation. Mitochondria were incubated for 30 min in the measuring buffer (see the Materials and Methods) containing 0.5 mM succinate as an electron donor and 0.2 µM mesoxalonitrile 3‐chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) as an uncoupler, 10 U horseradish peroxidase and 5 µM scopoletin.” (

0, 10, 30  μM Cd2+

2  μM antimycin A
 

Flow Cytometry ROS & Cell Viability

(Kruiderig et al., 1997)
“For determination of ROS, samples taken at the indicated time points were directly transferred to FACScan tubes. Dih123 (10 mM, final concentration) was added and cells were incubated at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere (95% air/5% CO2) for 10 min. At t 5 9, propidium iodide (10 mM, final concentration) was added, and cells were analyzed by flow cytometry at 60 ml/min. Nonfluorescent Dih123 is cleaved by ROS to fluorescent R123 and detected by the FL1 detector as described above for Dc (Van de Water 1995)”  

Strong/easy

medium

DCFH-DA Assay Detection of hydrogen peroxide production (Yuan et al., 2016)

Intracellular ROS production was measured using DCFH-DA as a probe. Hydrogen peroxide oxidizes DCFH to DCF. The probe is hydrolyzed intracellularly to DCFH carboxylate anion. No direct reaction with H2O2 to form fluorescent production.   

0-400 µM

Long/ Easy

High accuracy

H2-DCF-DA Assay Detection of superoxide production (Thiebault et al., 2007)

This dye is a stable nonpolar compound which diffuses readily into the cells and yields H2-DCF. Intracellular OH or ONOO- react with H2-DCF when cells contain peroxides, to form the highly fluorescent compound DCF, which effluxes the cell. Fluorescence intensity of DCF is measured using a fluorescence spectrophotometer. 0–600 µM

Long/ Easy

High accuracy

CM-H2DCFDA Assay **Come back and explain the flow cytometry determination of oxidative stress from Pan et al. (2009)**    

Direct Methods of Measurement

Method of Measurement 

References 

Description 

OECD-Approved Assay

Chemiluminescence 

(Lu, C. et al., 2006; 

Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

ROS can induce electron transitions in molecules, leading to electronically excited products. When the electrons transition back to ground state, chemiluminescence is emitted and can be measured. Reagents such as uminol and lucigenin are commonly used to amplify the signal. 

No

Spectrophotometry 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

NO has a short half-life. However, if it has been reduced to nitrite (NO2-), stable azocompounds can be formed via the Griess Reaction, and further measured by spectrophotometry. 

No

Direct or Spin Trapping-Based Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) Spectroscopy 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

The unpaired electrons (free radicals) found in ROS can be detected with EPR, and is known as electron paramagnetic resonance. A variety of spin traps can be used. 

No

Nitroblue Tetrazolium Assay 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

The Nitroblue Tetrazolium assay is used to measure O2 levels. O2 reduces nitroblue tetrazolium (a yellow dye) to formazan (a blue dye), and can be measured at 620 nm. 

No

Fluorescence analysis of dihydroethidium (DHE) or Hydrocyans 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

Fluorescence analysis of DHE is used to measure O2 levels. O2  is reduced to O2 as DHE is oxidized to 2-hydroxyethidium, and this reaction can be measured by fluorescence. Similarly, hydrocyans can be oxidized by any ROS, and measured via fluorescence. 

No

Amplex Red Assay 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

Fluorescence analysis to measure extramitochondrial or extracellular H2O2 levels. In the presence of horseradish peroxidase and H2O2, Amplex Red is oxidized to resorufin, a fluorescent molecule measurable by plate reader. 

No

Dichlorodihydrofluorescein Diacetate (DCFH-DA) 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

An indirect fluorescence analysis to measure intracellular H2O2 levels. H2O2 interacts with peroxidase or heme proteins, which further react with DCFH, oxidizing it to dichlorofluorescein (DCF), a fluorescent product. 

No

HyPer Probe 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

Fluorescent measurement of intracellular H2O2 levels. HyPer is a genetically encoded fluorescent sensor that can be used for in vivo and in situ imaging. 

No

Cytochrome c Reduction Assay 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

The cytochrome c reduction assay is used to measure O2 levels. O2  is reduced to O2 as ferricytochrome c is oxidized to ferrocytochrome c, and this reaction can be measured by an absorbance increase at 550 nm. 

No

Proton-electron double-resonance imagine (PEDRI)

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

The redox state of tissue is detected through nuclear magnetic resonance/magnetic resonance imaging, with the use of a nitroxide spin probe or biradical molecule. 

No

Glutathione (GSH) depletion 

(Biesemann, N. et al., 2018) 

A downstream target of the Nrf2 pathway is involved in GSH synthesis. As an indication of oxidation status, GSH can be measured by assaying the ratio of reduced to oxidized glutathione (GSH:GSSG) using a commercially available kit (e.g., http://www.abcam.com/gshgssg-ratio-detection-assay-kit-fluorometric-green-ab138881.html).  

No

Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) 

(Griendling, K. K., et al., 2016)

Oxidative damage to lipids can be measured by assaying for lipid peroxidation with TBARS using a commercially available kit.  

No

Protein oxidation (carbonylation)

(Azimzadeh et al., 2017; Azimzadeh etal., 2015; Ping et al., 2020)

Can be determined with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or a commercial assay kit. Protein oxidation can indicate the level of oxidative stress.

No

Seahorse XFp Analyzer    Leung et al. 2018    The Seahorse XFp Analyzer provides information on mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and metabolic dysfunction of viable cells by measuring respiration (oxygen consumption rate; OCR) and extracellular pH (extracellular acidification rate; ECAR).    No 

Molecular Biology: Nrf2. Nrf2’s transcriptional activity is controlled post-translationally by oxidation of Keap1. Assays for Nrf2 activity include: 

Method of Measurement 

References 

Description 

OECD-Approved Assay

Immunohistochemistry 

(Amsen, D., de Visser, K. E., and Town, T., 2009)

Immunohistochemistry for increases in Nrf2 protein levels and translocation into the nucleus  

No

Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) 

(Forlenza et al., 2012)

qPCR of Nrf2 target genes (e.g., Nqo1, Hmox-1, Gcl, Gst, Prx, TrxR, Srxn), or by commercially available pathway-based qPCR array (e.g., oxidative stress array from SABiosciences) 

No

Whole transcriptome profiling via microarray or via RNA-seq followed by a pathway analysis

(Jackson, A. F. et al., 2014)

Whole transcriptome profiling by microarray or RNA-seq followed by pathway analysis (in IPA, DAVID, metacore, etc.) for enrichment of the Nrf2 oxidative stress response pathway

No

Domain of Applicability

A description of the scientific basis for the indicated domains of applicability and the WoE calls (if provided).  More help

Taxonomic applicability: Occurrence of oxidative stress is not species specific.  

Life stage applicability: Occurrence of oxidative stress is not life stage specific. 

Sex applicability: Occurrence of oxidative stress is not sex specific. 

Evidence for perturbation by prototypic stressor: There is evidence of the increase of oxidative stress following perturbation from a variety of stressors including exposure to ionizing radiation and altered gravity (Bai et al., 2020; Ungvari et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2009).  

References

List of the literature that was cited for this KE description. More help

Ahmad, S. et al. (2021), “60Co-γ Radiation Alters Developmental Stages of Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Diptera: Tephritidae) Through Apoptosis Pathways Gene Expression”, Journal Insect Science, Vol. 21/5, Oxford University Press, Oxford, https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieab080

Antelmann, H. and J. D. Helmann (2011), “Thiol-based redox switches and gene regulation.”, Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, Vol. 14/6, Mary Ann Leibert Inc., Larchmont, https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.3400

Amsen, D., de Visser, K. E., and Town, T. (2009), “Approaches to determine expression of inflammatory cytokines”, in Inflammation and Cancer, Humana Press, Totowa, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-447-6_5 

Azimzadeh, O. et al. (2015), “Integrative Proteomics and Targeted Transcriptomics Analyses in Cardiac Endothelial Cells Unravel Mechanisms of Long-Term Radiation-Induced Vascular Dysfunction”, Journal of Proteome Research, Vol. 14/2, American Chemical Society, Washington, https://doi.org/10.1021/pr501141b

Azimzadeh, O. et al. (2017), “Proteome analysis of irradiated endothelial cells reveals persistent alteration in protein degradation and the RhoGDI and NO signalling pathways”, International Journal of Radiation Biology, Vol. 93/9, Informa, London, https://doi.org/10.1080/09553002.2017.1339332

Azzam, E. I. et al. (2012), “Ionizing radiation-induced metabolic oxidative stress and prolonged cell injury”, Cancer Letters, Vol. 327/1-2, Elsevier, Ireland, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.canlet.2011.12.012 

Bai, J. et al. (2020), “Irradiation-induced senescence of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells aggravates osteogenic differentiation dysfunction via paracrine signaling”, American Journal of Physiology - Cell Physiology, Vol. 318/5, American Physiological Society, Rockville, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00520.2019.

Balasubramanian, D (2000), “Ultraviolet radiation and cataract”, Journal of ocular pharmacology and therapeutics, Vol. 16/3, Mary Ann Liebert Inc., Larchmont, https://doi.org/10.1089/jop.2000.16.285.

Biesemann, N. et al., (2018), “High Throughput Screening of Mitochondrial Bioenergetics in Human Differentiated Myotubes Identifies Novel Enhancers of Muscle Performance in Aged Mice”, Scientific Reports, Vol. 8/1, Nature Portfolio, London, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-27614-8

Elgazzar, A. and N. Kazem. (2015), “Chapter 23: Biological effects of ionizing radiation” in The Pathophysiologic Basis of Nuclear Medicine, Springer, New York, pp. 540-548

Fletcher, A. E (2010), “Free radicals, antioxidants and eye diseases: evidence from epidemiological studies on cataract and age-related macular degeneration”, Ophthalmic Research, Vol. 44, Karger International, Basel, https://doi.org/10.1159/000316476.  

Forlenza, M. et al. (2012), “The use of real-time quantitative PCR for the analysis of cytokine mRNA levels” in Cytokine Protocols, Springer, New York, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-439-1_2 

Forrester, S.J. et al. (2018), “Angiotensin II Signal Transduction: An Update on Mechanisms of Physiology and Pathophysiology”, Physiological Reviews, Vol. 98/3, American Physiological Society, Rockville, https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00038.201

Foyer, C. H., A. V. Ruban, and G. Noctor (2017), “Viewing oxidative stress through the lens of oxidative signalling rather than damage”, Biochemical Journal, Vol. 474/6, Portland Press, England, https://doi.org/10.1042/BCJ20160814 

Ganea, E. and J. J. Harding (2006), “Glutathione-related enzymes and the eye”, Current eye research, Vol. 31/1, Informa, London, https://doi.org/10.1080/02713680500477347.

Griendling, K. K. et al. (2016), “Measurement of reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, and redox-dependent signaling in the cardiovascular system: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association”, Circulation research, Vol. 119/5, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, https://doi.org/10.1161/RES.0000000000000110

Guo, C. et al. (2013), “Oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and neurodegenerative diseases”, Neural regeneration research, Vol. 8/21, Publishing House of Neural Regeneration Research, China, https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.21.009

Hargreaves, M., and L. L. Spriet (2020), “Skeletal muscle energy metabolism during exercise.”, Nature Metabolism, Vol. 2, Nature Portfolio, London, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-020-0251-4

Hladik, D. and S. Tapio (2016), “Effects of ionizing radiation on the mammalian brain”, Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, Vol. 770, Elsevier, Amsterdam, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mrrev.2016.08.003

Itoh, K., J. Mimura and M. Yamamoto (2010), “Discovery of the negative regulator of Nrf2, Keap1: a historical overview”, Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, Vol. 13/11, Mary Ann Leibert Inc., Larchmont, https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2010.3222

Jackson, A.F. et al. (2014), “Case study on the utility of hepatic global gene expression profiling in the risk assessment of the carcinogen furan.”, Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Vol. 274/11, Elsevier, Amsterdam, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2013.10.019

Jacobsen, N.R. et al. (2008), “Genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, and reactive oxygen species induced by single-walled carbon nanotubes and C60 fullerenes in the FE1-MutaTM Mouse lung epithelial cells”, Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis, Vol. 49/6, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, https://doi.org/10.1002/em.20406

Karimi, N. et al. (2017), “Radioprotective effect of hesperidin on reducing oxidative stress in the lens tissue of rats”, International Journal of Pharmaceutical Investigation, Vol. 7/3, Phcog Net, Bengaluru, https://doi.org/10.4103/jphi.JPHI_60_17.

Leung, D.T.H., and Chu, S. (2018), “Measurement of Oxidative Stress: Mitochondrial Function Using the Seahorse System” In: Murthi, P., Vaillancourt, C. (eds) Preeclampsia. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 1710. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7498-6_22 

Lu, C., G. Song, and J. Lin (2006), “Reactive oxygen species and their chemiluminescence-detection methods”, TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 25/10, Elsevier, Amsterdam, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2006.07.007

Nguyen Dinh Cat, A. et al. (2013), “Angiotensin II, NADPH oxidase, and redox signaling in the vasculature”, Antioxidants & redox signaling, Vol. 19/10, Mary Ann Liebert, Larchmont, https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2012.4641

Ping, Z. et al. (2020), “Oxidative Stress in Radiation-Induced Cardiotoxicity”, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Vol. 2020, Hindawi, https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3579143

Pizzino, G. et al. (2017) “Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health.” Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity, Vol. 2017: 8416763, Hindawi,  https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8416763   

Powers, S.K. and M.J. Jackson. (2008), “Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress: Cellular Mechanisms and Impact on Muscle Force Production”, Physiological Reviews, Vol. 88/4, American Physiological Society, Rockville, https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00031.2007

Raimondi, V., F. Ciccarese and V. Ciminale. (2020), “Oncogenic pathways and the electron transport chain: a dangeROS liason”, British Journal of Cancer, Vol. 122/2, Nature Portfolio, London, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41416-019-0651-y

Seen, S. and L. Tong. (2018), “Dry eye disease and oxidative stress”, Acta Ophthalmologica, Vol. 96/4, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, https://doi.org/10.1111/aos.13526

Sharifi-Rad, M. et al. (2020), “Lifestyle, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidants: Back and Forth in the Pathophysiology of Chronic Diseases.” Frontiers in physiology Vol. 11:694,  https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.00694   

Snezhkina, A. V. et al. (2019), “ROS Generation and Antioxidant Defense Systems in Normal and Malignant Cells.” Oxidative medicine and cellular longevity Vol. 2019: 6175804, https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/6175804   

Ungvari, Z. et al. (2013), “Ionizing Radiation Promotes the Acquisition of a Senescence-Associated Secretory Phenotype and Impairs Angiogenic Capacity in Cerebromicrovascular Endothelial Cells: Role of Increased DNA Damage and Decreased DNA Repair Capacity in Microvascular Radiosensitivity”, The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, Vol. 68/12, Oxford University Press, Oxford, https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glt057.

 

Vargas-Mendoza, N. et al. (2021), “Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Function and Adaptation to Exercise: New Perspectives in Nutrition”, Life, Vol. 11/11, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, Basel, https://doi.org/10.3390/life11111269

Wang, H. et al. (2019), “Radiation-induced heart disease: a review of classification, mechanism and prevention”, International Journal of Biological Sciences, Vol. 15/10, Ivyspring International Publisher, Sydney, https://doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.35460

Zhang, R. et al. (2009), “Blockade of AT1 receptor partially restores vasoreactivity, NOS expression, and superoxide levels in cerebral and carotid arteries of hindlimb unweighting rats”, Journal of applied physiology, Vol. 106/1, American Physiological Society, Rockville, https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01278.2007.

Zhao, R. Z. et al. (2019), “Mitochondrial electron transport chain, ROS generation and uncoupling”, International journal of molecular medicine, Vol. 44/1, Spandidos Publishing Ltd., Athens, https://doi.org/10.3892/ijmm.2019.4188